Native American History

Native American history spans an array of diverse groups and leaders, including Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and Tecumseh, and events like the Trail of Tears, the Battle of Little Bighorn and the occupation of Alcatraz.

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Well before Europeans arrived, North America contained a number of large cities that rivaled those an ocean away.

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Antique historical photographs from the US Navy and Army: three rows of Osage Indians standing and sitting

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Featured Overview

Well before Europeans arrived, North America contained a number of large cities that rivaled those an ocean away.

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Since the arrival of European settlers, leadership for America’s Indigenous peoples has disproportionately involved fighting to exist.

Ousamequin, chief of the Wampanoag signs a peace treaty with Governor John Carver (1576 - 1621).

The treaty that made the first Thanksgiving possible has a dark backstory.

Chief John Ross devoted much of his life to fighting against the forced removal of his people from their ancestral lands.

Native Americans dance during the grand entry of the 30th annual Morongo Thunder & Lightning Pow Wow at the Morongo Band of Mission Indians reservation in Cabazon on Saturday, September 25, 2021.

There are more than nine million Native Americans living in the United States, representing hundreds of tribal nations with diverse languages, cultures and traditions.

8 Incredible Inventions of the Indigenous People of the Americas

8 Incredible Inventions of the Indigenous People of the Americas

From goggles to kayaks and more, discover eight incredible inventions by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.

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Native American History
Five Native American chiefs, dressed in western clothes, sitting in a semi-circle holding belts made of wampum beads

For Indigenous people, the small, cylindrical beads crafted from purple and white shells served many purposes—just not as money.

Since the arrival of European settlers, leadership for America’s Indigenous peoples has disproportionately involved fighting to exist.

President Richard Nixon sitting at a big table signing a document while two Native American people stand to the side, looking on.

After centuries of devastating government policies, American Indians had someone in the White House willing to return tribal land, listen to grievances—and support their autonomy.

Workers strike oil in Osage territory. (Credit: David Grann)

When wealthy Native people died during the Osage Reign of Terror, it was often their white spouses and court-appointed guardians who stood to profit most.

Alcatraz, known to most as a famous prison, became an important mark in salvation for Native American history.

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Four Alaska Territorial Guardsmen being sworn in for an assignment in Barrow, Alaska.

After the Japanese invaded the Aleutian Islands, Indigenous volunteers helped form the Alaska Territorial Guard.

Sequoyah, shown here in 1825, developed a Cherokee syllabary in 12 years.

Sequoyah spent 12 years working on a writing system for his nation’s language.

Circa 1975: During a protest gathering, some followers of AIM (American Indian Movement ) raise their fists to swear the Red Power oath.

The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a grassroots movement for Indigenous rights, founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The group has organized many high-profile protests and occupations, and was a driving force behind the Native American civil rights movement of the 1970s.

Native Americans dance during the grand entry of the 30th annual Morongo Thunder & Lightning Pow Wow at the Morongo Band of Mission Indians reservation in Cabazon on Saturday, September 25, 2021.

There are more than nine million Native Americans living in the United States, representing hundreds of tribal nations with diverse languages, cultures and traditions.

Wounded Knee Massacre

White settlers feared the Lakota's Ghost Dance presaged an armed uprising. But US troops carried out the bloodbath.

Teddy Roosevelt Championed Conservation Efforts—That Also Displaced Native Americans

He helped establish national parks, forests and game preserves. But much of that land had been stewarded by Indigenous people for generations.

President Abraham Lincoln

Lincoln signed laws that gave away millions of acres of tribal land. And he approved the mass execution of 38 Dakota Sioux warriors.

A vintage engraving of a 19th-century lacrosse game between Canadians and Iroquois. / Getty Images

The sport, which dates to 1100, was a social event and sometimes played to settle disputes.

The 1921 Wrangel Island Expedition team: Ada Blackjack, Allan Crawford, Lorne Knight, Fred Maurer, Milton Galle, and Victoria the cat.; 1921.

In the early 1920s, 25-year-old Ada Blackjack survived two years on the frigid Wrangel Island after a failed expedition to claim the island for Canada.

Mid-18th century map of the Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Five (later Six) Nations

In the story of the Great Law of Peace, Hiawatha and the Peacemaker convince leaders of the Five Nations to literally bury the hatchet.

Po'payUNITED STATES - SEPTEMBER 21: Sen. Pete Domenici (R), R-NM, at the dedication ceremony of the statue of Pueblo leader Po'pay in the Rotunda of Capitol. Po'pay led a revolt against the Spanish in 1680 that helped cement native culture. (Photo By Chris Maddaloni/Roll Call/Getty Images)

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 drove out the Spanish for 12 years—and saved many Indigenous cultures from being wiped out.

Geronimo and Chiricahua Apache warriors

Lozen fought against Mexican and American forces for 30 years, earning the nickname 'Apache Joan of Arc.'

From goggles to kayaks and more, discover eight incredible inventions by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.

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How Mohawk 'Skywalkers' Helped Build New York City's Most Iconic Skyscrapers

Native American riveting gangs worked on the 'high steel' for iconic structures like the Chrysler Building, Empire State Building, Rockefeller Plaza and more.

Vice President Charles Curtis, the First Non-White Vice President

Vice President Charles Curtis, a member of the Kaw Nation who served under Herbert Hoover, supported assimilation policies.

How Native American Diet Shifted with the Arrival of Colonists

For centuries, Indigenous people’s diets were totally based on what could be harvested locally. Then white settlers arrived from Europe.

Why Native Americans Have Protested Mount Rushmore?

While Mount Rushmore is considered a treasured destination for some Americans, to Native Americans, it can represent a stinging legacy.

Historian Zonnie Gorman, whose father was one of the original Navajo Code Talker, discusses the unit’s herculean efforts during World War II.

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Samuel F. Sandoval, one of the four surviving Navajo Code Talkers, discusses his military career and the Navajo language.

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The Five Nation Confederacy. Engraving from Pere Joseph Francois Lafitau, "Moeurs des sauvages ameriquains." Paris, 1724.

The constitutional framers may have viewed Indigenous people of the Iroquois Confederacy as inferior, but that didn't stop them from admiring their federalist principles.

1908: Apsaroke woman on horseback, packhorse beside her.

Horses were first introduced to Native American tribes via European explorers. For the buffalo-hunting Plains Indians, the swift, strong animals quickly became prized.

Native Americans Used Fire to Protect and Cultivate Land

Indigenous people routinely burned land to drive prey, clear underbrush and provide pastures.

One settlement in modern-day Illinois hosted a population of around 20,000, while another featured multiple-story buildings.

Close up portrait of Geronimo

The legendary medicine man and guerrilla warrior was so expert at eluding the enemy, he was considered to be protected by supernatural powers.

Native American Inventions

From kayaks to contraceptives to pain relievers, Native Americans from a range of tribal nations developed key innovations long before Columbus reached the Americas.

Severe exposure, starvation and disease ravaged tribes during their forced migration to present-day Oklahoma.

A proclamation by King George III set the stage for Native American rights—and the eventual loss of most tribal lands.

The executive order acknowledged state-sponsored violence and discrimination against Native peoples as part of 'California's dark history.'

There's a long history of Native bones being stolen by individuals and institutions.

At the turn of the century, photographer Edward Curtis spent 30 years documenting more than 80 Native American tribes.

As explorers sought to colonize their land, Native Americans responded in various stages, from cooperation to indignation to revolt.

Piestewa kept true to her roots and made the ultimate sacrifice for her comrades in battle.

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Calvin Coolidge and Native American group at White House

Native Americans won U.S. citizenship in 1924, but the struggle for voting rights stretched on for much longer.

Lori Piestewa

Lori Ann Piestewa was the first woman to die on the front lines in Iraq and the first American Indian woman to die serving the U.S. Armed Forces.

Crazy Horse.

Crazy Horse was a Lakota leader and warrior who clashed with the U.S. federal government.

In the late 1880s, Weldon was vilified as a harpy who was in love with Sitting Bull. Both she and the Lakota leader would meet tragic fates.

Tom Torlino

Once they returned home, Native American children struggled to relate to their families after being taught that it was wrong to speak their language or practice their religion.

A photographer's interpretation of James Fraser's classic sculpture, the 'End of the Trail,' circa 1915. (Credit: Underwood Archives/Getty Images)

By the close of the Indian Wars in the late 19th century, fewer than 238,000 Indigenous people remained of the estimated 5 million-plus living in North America before European contact.

Native American Encampment - Lakota Indians UNITED STATES - CIRCA 1890: Bird's-eye view of a Lakota camp (several teepees and wagons in large field)--probably on or near Pine Ridge Reservation. (Photo by Buyenlarge/Getty Images)

Indian reservations were created by the 1851 Indian Appropriations Act as a means for minimizing conflict and encouraging cultural change among Native tribes.

1931 illustration of Captain John Smith being 'saved' by Pocahontas. (Credit: GraphicaArtis/Getty Images)

Early American plays portrayed her as a mythical 'Indian princess.'

Hopi men from Oraibi, Arizona sent to Alcatraz, 1895. Photograph by Isaiah W. Taber. (Credit: Mennonite Library and Archives/Bethel College, North Newton, KS)

They resisted government attacks to take their children—and paid the price.

Carletta Tilous, of Arizona's Havasupai tribe, talks about giving blood during a news conference after settling a lawsuit alleging Arizona State University scientists of misusing blood samples meant for diabetes research to study schizophrenia, inbreeding and ancient population migration. (Credit: Ross D. Franklin/AP/REX/Shutterstock)

A 15-year-old ban looks likely to fall, but misgivings will linger.

Explore 5 facts about the Proclamation of 1763, a decree originally enacted to calm the tension between Native Americans and colonials, but became one of the earliest causes of the American Revolution.

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Sioux boys arrive at the Carlisle School, October 5, 1879. (Credit: Corbis/Getty Images)

Native American tribes are still seeking the return of their children.

The French and Indian War saw two European imperialists go head-to-head over territory and marked the debut of the soldier who would become America's first president.

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Mollie Burkhart (right) with sister Anna and mother Lizzie. (Credit: David Grann)

As detailed in <em>Killers of the Flower Moon</em>, the Osage murders were among the most chilling conspiracies in US history—and the FBI’s first major homicide case.

Four centuries after Pocahontas’ death, unlearn everything you thought you knew about this Native American icon.

Susan LaFlesche

Susan La Flesche shattered not just one barrier, but two, to become the first Native American woman doctor in the United States in the 1880s.

In 1876, General Custer and members of several Plains Indian tribes, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, battled in eastern Montana in what would become known as Custer's Last Stand.

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Geronimo, the great Chiricahua Apache war chief, in old age at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. | Location: Fort Sill, Oklahoma Territory. (Photo by © CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images)

Check out seven fascinating facts about Geronimo’s life and legend.

The buffalo was an essential part of Native American life, used in everything from religious rituals to teepee construction.

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Check out seven facts about this infamous chapter in American history.

Sitting Bull born circa 1831 died 1890. Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux holy man. Portrait on a 19th century cabinet card.UNSPECIFIED - CIRCA 1800: Sitting Bull born circa 1831 died 1890. Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux holy man. Portrait on a 19th century cabinet card. (Photo by Universal History Archive/Getty Images)

Get the facts about one of the most legendary Native Americans of the 19th century.

Three men seen from the back, wearing buckskin and Indian regalia, are facing a group of Native American people loosely gathered in front of the main cell block building of Alcatraz. The island prison's water tower is in the background.

In 1969, a group of rebel activists took over America’s most notorious prison for more than 19 months.

Navajo Code Talkers

An overheard conversation between three Choctaw Indian soldiers serving in World War I led to a code strategy that confounded enemy forces.

French And Indian War1755: A battle scene from the French and Indian War (1754 - 1763), a conflict between the British and the French, aided by their respective colonial and Native American allies, for the domination of America. (Photo by MPI/Getty Images)

10 surprising facts about the imperial war for colonial domination between Great Britain and France.

Emanuel Leutze’s “Washington at the Battle of the Monongahela" showing the death of General Edward Braddock during the French and Indian War.

It's been overshadowed by other events, but King George III’s decree—which banned colonial settlement west of the Appalachians—was the first in a series of British actions that led to the American Revolution.

Find out how Andrew Jackson's controversial Indian Removal Act paved the way for The Trail of Tears.

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Resistant to government regulated reservations, the Sioux retreated into the Black Hills until a final massacre at Wounded Knee.

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Portrait of Oglala Sioux holy man Black Elk (1863 - 1950), 1880s.

Witness to some of the most consequential military interactions between Plains Indians and the US government in the latter part of the 19th century, Black Elk wrote a vivid chronicle of Lakota Sioux history and spiritual traditions.

Sacaagawea with Lewis and Clark

Sacagawea was a Shoshone Indian woman who accompanied the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804-06, exploring the lands procured in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.

Roger Williams, English colonist and founder of the colony of Rhode Island, being assisted by the Narragansett in 1635.

When the first European settlers arrived in the region around Narragansett Bay (present-day Rhode Island) around 1635, they encountered a number of Indigenous peoples, including the Algonquian-speaking Narragansett.

Custer’s Last Stand from the Battle of Little Bighorn.

The Indian Wars were a series of battles waged for nearly 200 years by European settlers and the U.S. government against Native Americans, primarily over land.

HISTORY: Native American Cultures

Native Americans, also known as American Indians and Indigenous Americans, are the indigenous peoples of the United States. By the time European adventurers arrived in the 15th century A.D., scholars estimate that more than 50 million Native Americans were already living in the Americas — 10 million in the area that would become the United States.

Custer's Last Stand A engraving depicting Custer's Last Stand at the Battle of the Little Bighorn 25th–26th June 1876. Print published 1889.

The Battle of the Little Bighorn, also called Custer’s Last Stand, marked the most decisive Native American victory and the worst U.S. Army defeat in the long Plains Indian War. It was fought on June 25, 1876 near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory.

The Trail of Tears as depicted in a 1951 painting by Blackbear Bosin.

The Trail of Tears was the deadly route used by Native Americans when forced off their ancestral lands and into Oklahoma by the Indian Removal Act of 1830.

Chief Tecumseh

Tecumseh was a Shawnee chief who organized a Native American confederacy to create a free Indian state and stop white settlement in the Great Lakes region.

HISTORY: Sitting Bull

Sitting Bull (1831-1890) was the Native American chief under whom the Lakota tribes united in their struggle for survival on the North American Great Plains.

King Philip’s War

King Philip’s War, a failed effort by Native Americans of New England to drive out English colonists, was led by Wampanoag chief Metacom (aka King Philip).

Marquis de Montcalm Dying in French and Indian War(Original Caption) Montcalm, too was killed at Quebec. Earlier he had written that he would "save this unhappy colony or die in the attempt."

The French and Indian War, or Seven Years War, a conflict primarily fought between Britain and France over New World territory, ended with a British victory.

The Battle of Fallen Timbers, 1794 Northwest Indian War

The Battle of Timbers, on August 20, 1794, was the last major conflict of the Northwest Territory Indian War between Native Americans and the United States.

Statue of Cochise, from Chiricahua Apache Tribe

Apache chief Cochise (?-1874) was a prominent leader of the Chiricahua Indians, feared for his settlement raids during the 1800s

A sign at the site of the Wounded Knee Massacre, South Dakota, where 250 American Indians were killed in 1890.

Wounded Knee in South Dakota was the site of an 1890 Indian massacre by U.S. Army troops, and a deadly 1973 occupation by Native American activists.

The 1759 Battle of Quebec

The Battle of Quebec in 1759 was a skirmish fought by British troops invading Quebec. By scaling the cliffs around the city, the British defeated French defenses.

Pocahontascirca 1800: Pocahontas or Matoaka (c.1595 - 1617), the daughter of Algonquian chief Powhatan. After her legendary rescue of Captain John Smith, she married English colonist John Rolfe and travelled with him to England, where she died. (Photo by MPI/Getty Images)

Pocahontas, born around 1595, was the daughter of the powerful Chief Powhatan, the ruler of the Powhatan tribal nation. When European settlers arrived on Powhatan land to begin the colony of Jamestown, Pocahontas became embroiled in a series of events that permanently linked her to America’s colonial heritage.

Portrait of Apache leader Geronimo

Apache chief Geronimo (1829-1909) led his followers on a series of escapes in the mid-1870s that bolstered his legend and embarrassed the U.S. government. He surrendered to General Nelson Miles in 1886, and remained a celebrity in captivity until his death at Oklahoma’s Fort Sill.

French And Indian War1755: A battle scene from the French and Indian War (1754 - 1763), a conflict between the British and the French, aided by their respective colonial and Native American allies, for the domination of America. (Photo by MPI/Getty Images)

In 1763, at the end of the French and Indian War, the British issued a proclamation, mainly intended to conciliate the Indians by checking the encroachment of settlers on their lands.